Exercise

World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour

Fiona Bull, Salih S Al-Ansari, Stuart Biddle +27 more · British Journal of Sports Medicine · 2020 · 10,653 citations

This systematic review and guideline development process found that adults who do 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity per week (or 75–150 minutes of vigorous activity) have a 20–30% lower risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and several cancers compared to inactive adults, and that any amount of physical activity is better than none — making this the single most important evidence-based target for anyone running a personal health experiment.

Sedentary behavior and physical activity levels in people with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder: a global systematic review and meta‐analysis

Davy Vancampfort, Joseph Firth, Felipe Barreto Schuch +9 more · World Psychiatry · 2017 · 933 citations

People with severe mental illness (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depressive disorder) spend significantly more time being sedentary and less time being physically active than healthy individuals, highlighting a critical area for self-experimentation to improve overall health.

Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth

Ian Janssen, Allana G. LeBlanc · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · 2010 · 4,786 citations

Regular physical activity, especially at moderate to vigorous intensity and including both aerobic and strengthening exercises, is strongly linked to numerous health benefits in children and youth aged 5-17, suggesting that increasing daily activity can significantly improve health markers for anyone.

Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Mild Cognitive Impairment

Laura D. Baker, Laura L. Frank, Karen E. Foster‐Schubert +10 more · Archives of Neurology · 2010 · 1,154 citations

High-intensity aerobic exercise for six months improved executive function and metabolic markers in older women with mild cognitive impairment, suggesting a potent non-drug intervention, but men showed fewer cognitive benefits, highlighting the importance of considering sex differences in self-experiments.

Randomized controlled trial of yoga and exercise in multiple sclerosis

B. S. Oken, Shirley S. Kishiyama, Daniel P. Zajdel +7 more · Neurology · 2004 · 589 citations

This study found that both a 6-month program of Iyengar yoga and a 6-month program of stationary bicycle exercise significantly reduced fatigue in people with multiple sclerosis compared to a control group, suggesting these interventions are worth testing for fatigue management.

Physical activity and mental health: evidence is growing

Stuart Biddle · World Psychiatry · 2016 · 239 citations

Engaging in physical activity, from reducing sedentary time to moderate-to-vigorous exercise, is consistently linked to improved mood, self-esteem, cognitive function, and reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety, with some evidence suggesting a causal relationship, making it a valuable target for personal experiments to enhance mental well-being.

Association between physical exercise and mental health in 1·2 million individuals in the USA between 2011 and 2015: a cross-sectional study

Sammi R. Chekroud, Ralitza Gueorguieva, Amanda B. Zheutlin +4 more · The Lancet Psychiatry · 2018 · 1,142 citations

Effects of combining physical activity with mindfulness on mental health and wellbeing: Systematic review of complex interventions

Masha Remskar, Max J. Western, Emma L. Osborne +2 more · Mental health and physical activity · 2023 · 42 citations

This systematic review found that combining physical activity with mindfulness is effective for improving mental health and wellbeing, and might be more beneficial than either practice alone for someone looking to enhance their psychological state.

Cognitive and behavioural effects of music-based exercises in patients with dementia

Ann Van de Winckel, Hilde Feys, Willy De Weerdt +1 more · Clinical Rehabilitation · 2004 · 258 citations

A three-month daily music-based exercise program significantly improved cognitive function, particularly general cognition and verbal fluency, in women with dementia, suggesting a potential strategy for maintaining or improving mental sharpness.

Cognitive Effects of Aerobic Exercise in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

Fang Yu, David M. Vock, Lin Zhang +7 more · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · 2021 · 144 citations

BACKGROUND: Aerobic exercise has shown inconsistent cognitive effects in older adults with Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia. OBJECTIVE: To examine the immediate and longitudinal effects of 6-month cycling on cognition in older adults with AD dementia. METHODS: This randomized controlled trial randomized 96 participants (64 to cycling and 32 to stretching for six months) and followed them for another six months. The intervention was supervised, moderate-intensity cycling for 20-50 minutes, 3 times a week for six months. The control was light-intensity stretching. Cognition was assessed at baseline, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months using the AD Assessment Scale-Cognition (ADAS-Cog). Discrete cognitive domains were measured using the AD Uniform Data Set battery. RESULTS: The participants were 77.4±6.8 years old with 15.6±2.9 years of education, and 55% were male. The 6-month change in ADAS-Cog was 1.0±4.6 (cycling) and 0.1±4.1 (stretching), which were both significantly less than the natural 3.2±6.3-point increase observed naturally with disease progression. The 12-month change was 2.4±5.2 (cycling) and 2.2±5.7 (control). ADAS-Cog did not differ between groups at 6 (p = 0.386) and 12 months (p = 0.856). There were no differences in the 12-month rate of change in ADAS-Cog (0.192 versus 0.197, p = 0.967), memory (-0.012 versus -0.019, p = 0.373), executive function (-0.020 versus -0.012, p = 0.383), attention (-0.035 versus -0.033, p = 0.908), or language (-0.028 versus -0.026, p = 0.756). CONCLUSION: Exercise may reduce decline in global cognition in older adults with mild-to-moderate AD dementia. Aerobic exercise did not show superior cognitive effects to stretching in our pilot trial, possibly due to the lack of power.

Physical activity and exercise interventions for disease-related physical and mental health during and following treatment in people with non-advanced colorectal cancer

Maresa McGettigan, Chris R. Cardwell, Marie M. Cantwell +1 more · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · 2017 · 42 citations

This document is a *protocol* outlining the plan for a comprehensive Cochrane systematic review, detailing how researchers will search for, evaluate, and synthesize existing studies on physical activity and exercise interventions for people with non-advanced colorectal cancer; *this protocol does not contain any findings or results*, but rather sets the stage for a future review that will assess the effectiveness and safety of

The effects of interventions with physical activity components on adolescent mental health: Systematic review and meta-analysis

Ruth D. Neill, Katrina Lloyd, Paul Best +1 more · Mental health and physical activity · 2020 · 27 citations

A rigorous meta-analysis of 13 RCTs found that physical activity interventions produced no statistically significant improvement in anxiety or depression in adolescents aged 10–19, meaning the evidence is currently too weak and inconsistent to confidently prescribe a specific exercise dose for adolescent mental health. ---

Physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents: An updated review of reviews and an analysis of causality

Stuart Biddle, Simone Ciaccioni, George Thomas +1 more · Psychology of sport and exercise · 2018 · 1,283 citations

‘Walk this way’: results from a pilot randomised controlled trial of a health coaching intervention to reduce sedentary behaviour and increase physical activity in people with serious mental illness

Julie Williams, Brendon Stubbs, Sol Richardson +7 more · BMC Psychiatry · 2019 · 40 citations

A 17-week health coaching program, including education, pedometers, and regular coaching, helped people with serious mental illness reduce daily sedentary time by 56 minutes and increase physical activity by 32 minutes, with these changes lasting for at least 6 months, suggesting that a structured, supportive approach can effectively shift activity levels even in challenging circumstances.

Vigorous Physical Activity, Mental Health, Perceived Stress, and Socializing among College Students

Nicole A. VanKim, Toben F. Nelson · American Journal of Health Promotion · 2013 · 424 citations

College students who did vigorous physical activity at least 3 days per week were about 21% less likely to report poor mental health and 25% less likely to report high perceived stress, and about half of that benefit appeared to come from the social interactions surrounding exercise rather than the exercise itself.

Physical activity in European adolescents and associations with anxiety, depression and well-being

Elaine McMahon, Paul Corcoran, Grace O’Regan +25 more · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · 2016 · 630 citations

Stimulant Reduction Intervention using Dosed Exercise (STRIDE) - CTN 0037: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Madhukar H. Trivedi, Tracy L. Greer, Bruce D. Grannemann +16 more · Trials · 2011 · 48 citations

This study protocol outlines a large-scale randomized controlled trial designed to investigate whether vigorous exercise can help reduce stimulant abuse and dependence in individuals undergoing residential treatment, compared to a health education program.

Dose-response issues concerning physical activity and health: an evidence-based symposium

Y. Antero Kesäniemi, E. Danforth, Michael Dam Jensen +3 more · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2001 · 840 citations

Regular physical activity is widely accepted as a behavior to reduce all-cause mortality rates and to improve a number of health outcomes. On October 11–15, 2000, Health Canada and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sponsored a scientific symposium to determine whether there is a dose-response relationship between physical activity and several health-related outcomes and to identify areas for future research. The invited experts reviewed and evaluated the existing literature according to an evidence-based methodology used previously by the National Institutes of Health (5) (Table 1). The Consensus Committee (Panel), consisting of individuals with experience and knowledge in health areas of concern from outside the field of exercise science, reviewed and evaluated the evidence presented, assigned it to an evidence category, and identified topics for future research. The manuscripts upon which the consensus was based and the report of the Consensus Committee are published concurrently in this issue of Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. Table 1: Categories of evidence.aMost of the evidence currently available seems to be related to the effects (benefits or risks) of regular physical activity rather than to the relationship between dose and response. Therefore, the Panel decided to summarize the evidence for the effects of participation in regular physical activity, because the Panel found this useful and necessary to properly understand the dose-response data. The key terms used during the Symposium and in this report are described in detail by Howley (4). Briefly, health is defined as a human condition with physical, social, and psychological dimensions. Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by contraction of skeletal muscle that substantially increases energy expenditure. The dose of physical activity, or exercise, needed to bring about a particular health benefit response is described by the characteristics of frequency, duration, intensity, and type of activity. Frequency is described as the number of activity sessions per time period (e.g., day or week). Duration refers to the number of minutes of activity in each session. Intensity describes, in relative or absolute terms, the measured or estimated effort (energy cost) associated with the physical activity. Physical activity may be of a leisure time or occupational type activity. Physical fitness is defined as a set of attributes (i.e., cardiorespiratory endurance, skeletal muscle endurance, skeletal muscle strength, etc.) that relate to the ability to perform physical activity. The product of frequency, duration, and intensity yields the total energy expenditure associated with the physical activity and is a measure of the volume of exercise. The gross cost of an activity is the total energy expenditure, which includes resting metabolic rate and the cost of the activity itself. The net cost is that associated with the activity alone. BACKGROUND Concepts and Methods Appropriate measurements of physical activity are needed to judge whether there is a dose-response relationship between physical activity and health. Ideally, the important components of physical activity include measurements of frequency and duration (time) and intensity (absolute and relative). With these measurements, it is possible to calculate the dose (or volume) of exercise. Unfortunately, many studies have not collected detailed measures on intensity, duration, and frequency but have used subjective assessments such as “little, moderate, and heavy.” The dose equals the energy expended in physical activity and is one of the potential mediators of the health benefits of physical activity. Therefore, relatively accurate measurements of both the time spent in physical activity and intensity of physical activity are needed. This is a problem because the methods used in field studies (questionnaires, physical activity records, and recall diaries) are imprecise, particularly for estimating low levels of physical activity. These methods rely on self-reports of the individual’s perceived intensity of physical activity. They may not reflect the absolute intensity across all age and sex groups required for converting the perceived levels of exercise intensity into METs, a commonly used unit used to estimate the metabolic cost (oxygen consumption) of physical activity. One MET equals the resting metabolic rate (∼kcal·min-1 or 3–5 mL O2·kg-1·min-1). The lack of a gold standard for the precise quantification of the energy expenditure of physical activity has hampered the development of universally acceptable and accurate field assessment techniques. A variety of direct and indirect methods are presently used to assess physical activity. Portable oxygen uptake devices and improved sensors of bodily movements and temperature continue to be investigated, but more work and better consensus regarding their uniform application are needed. Older and/or obese individuals are likely to perceive a given absolute level of physical activity as more intense than younger, fit, less obese individuals. To convert perceived levels of physical activity intensity into meaningful absolute intensity levels (and therefore into energy expenditure of physical activity), it is helpful to have conversion factors. The Panel recommends that the conversion factors provided in Table 2 be widely used by investigators to calculate indices of volume, as well as the absolute and relative levels of physical activity. This table allows the data reported in relative intensity to be converted into absolute intensity. Table 2: Classification of physical activity intensity.It is important to consider the intensity of physical activity as part of the dose-response relationship because of its known effect on fitness. Fitness, commonly assessed in terms of peak workload or maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), is improved more by high- than low-intensity physical activity. If fitness is an intermediate factor between physical activity and health benefits, then measurement of the intensity of physical activity may be important in assessing dose response. V̇O2max has been used as a measure of the “dose” of physical activity. Given the significant constitutional, interindividual variability in V̇O2max, this may not be ideal. The measurement of fitness itself, however, is more accurate than current field measurements of physical activity. There is some evidence that fitness could be more strongly related to some health outcomes than physical activity. These observations, however, may be due in part to the greater accuracy in the measurements of fitness. Other measurements of fitness include the assessments of submaximal exercise endurance and the heart rate response to a given workload. Two further issues need to be considered when testing for a dose-response relationship between physical activity and health outcomes. The first relates to the increased risk to adverse health outcomes as the volume and intensity of exercise are increased. In this case, the net benefit of higher levels of physical activity may not be as great as predicted (Fig. 1). The second issue relates to the likelihood that the overall physical activity level (both activities of daily living and occupational physical activity) of populations is decreasing. Consequently, estimating the volume of physical activity needed to reduce health risks from data generated by older studies could be problematic. FIGURE 1: The relationship of exercise intensity to biological change (for two dose-response profiles) and risk injury. Net health benefit for moderate- and high-intensity exercise displayed; from ref. 3.Although the resistance training and flexibility issues are important to global health outcomes, the Symposium focused mainly on physical activity with an emphasis on aerobic activities. Fractionalization of Physical Activity Fractionalization of physical activity can be understood as: 1) comparing one continuous session of exercise with several short sessions of the same total duration; or 2) comparing a session of moderate-to-hard exercise with a session of longer duration, lower intensity, but equivalent energy expenditure, i.e., “trading intensity for duration.” In randomized short-term studies, which compare the training effects of one long exercise session per day to several short (≥10 min) exercise sessions per day at the same intensity, two short sessions appear generally as effective as a single session of the same total duration. Moreover, improvements in V̇O2max are found equal for both programs in randomized long-term training studies (Category B). When considering the issue of “trading intensity for duration,” short-term studies suggest that heavy exercise is more likely to induce negative energy balance than light exercise (Category C). In long-term studies, there is evidence that high-intensity training elicits a greater increase in V̇O2max than low-intensity training for the same total energy expenditure (Category B). Acute and Chronic Effects of Physical Activity Acute effects of physical activity refer to health-related changes that occur during and in the hours after physical activity, which are not further improved with additional physical activity. Chronic effects associated with physical activity occur over time due to changes in the structure or function of various body systems, of the exercise response and the to exercise training be in because of sessions with more (i.e., Therefore, there may be an between the and effects of physical activity. In some exercise may have an effect that with on the response to exercise. 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The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise

Jules Pretty, Jo Peacock, Martin H. Sellens +1 more · International Journal of Environmental Health Research · 2005 · 1,096 citations

Both physical activity and exposure to nature are known separately to have positive effects on physical and mental health. We have investigated whether there is a synergistic benefit in adopting physical activities whilst being directly exposed to nature ('green exercise'). Five groups of 20 subjects were exposed to a sequence of 30 scenes projected on a wall whilst exercising on a treadmill. Four categories of scenes were tested: rural pleasant, rural unpleasant, urban pleasant and urban unpleasant. The control was running without exposure to images. Blood pressure and two psychological measures (self-esteem and mood) were measured before and after the intervention. There was a clear effect of both exercise and different scenes on blood pressure, self-esteem and mood. Exercise alone significantly reduced blood pressure, increased self-esteem, and had a positive significant effect on 4 of 6 mood measures. Both rural and urban pleasant scenes produced a significantly greater positive effect on self-esteem than the exercise-only control. This shows the synergistic effect of green exercise in both rural and urban environments. By contrast, both rural and urban unpleasant scenes reduced the positive effects of exercise on self-esteem. The rural unpleasant scenes had the most dramatic effect, depressing the beneficial effects of exercise on three different measures of mood. It appears that threats to the countryside depicted in rural unpleasant scenes have a greater negative effect on mood than already urban unpleasant scenes. We conclude that green exercise has important public and environmental health consequences.

A Single 30 Minutes Bout of Combination Physical Exercises Improved Inhibition and Vigor-Mood in Middle-Aged and Older Females: Evidence From a Randomized Controlled Trial

Rui Nouchi, Haruka Nouchi, Ryuta Kawashima · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · 2020 · 29 citations

A single 30-minute session of combined aerobic, strength, and stretching exercises was found to immediately improve mental focus (inhibition) and feelings of energy and vigor in middle-aged and older women, suggesting that even a short, varied exercise session can provide a quick mental and mood boost worth testing in your own routine.

Exercise interveNtion outdoor proJect in the cOmmunitY - results from the ENJOY program for independence in dementia: a feasibility pilot randomised controlled trial.

Levinger P, Goh AMY, Dunn J +6 more · BMC Geriatr · 2023 · 19 citations

A 12-week outdoor exercise program using specialised "senior-friendly" park equipment was feasible and safe for older adults with mild cognitive impairment or early dementia, and produced meaningful improvements in physical function (walking speed, balance, chair stand time) and cognitive performance (executive function, memory) compared to usual care, suggesting that community-based outdoor exercise interventions can be delivered effectively in this population.

Effects of school-based physical activity interventions on mental health in adolescents: The School in Motion cluster randomized controlled trial

Andreas Åvitsland, Éva Leibinger, Geir Kåre Resaland +3 more · Mental health and physical activity · 2020 · 18 citations

Two school-based physical activity programs did not improve mental health for all adolescents, but one program showed beneficial effects for those with higher baseline psychological difficulties and both programs showed promise for immigrant adolescents, suggesting targeted physical activity might help specific groups.

[Regular physical activity and mental health. The role of exercise in the prevention of, and intervention in depressive disorders].

Johanna Takács · PubMed · 2014 · 13 citations

This meta-analysis found that regular exercise is a powerful and effective intervention for both preventing and treating depression, with effects appearing within 4-8 weeks, making it a promising self-experiment for mood improvement.

Effect of a randomized, controlled trial of exercise on mood and physical function in individuals with fibromyalgia

S. E. Gowans, A. deHueck, Sarah Voss +3 more · Arthritis & Rheumatism · 2001 · 249 citations

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of exercise on mood and physical function in individuals with fibromyalgia. METHODS: Subjects were randomly assigned to an exercise (EX) or control (CTL) group. EX subjects participated in 3 30-minute exercise classes per week for 23 weeks. Subjects were tested at entry and at 6, 12, and 23 weeks. Tests included the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 6-minute walk, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Mental Health Inventory (MHI), Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQ), Arthritis Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES), and a measure of tender points and knee strength. RESULTS: Fifty subjects (27 EX, 23 CTL) completed the study, and 31 (15 EX, 16 CTL) met criteria for efficacy analyses. In efficacy analyses, significant improvements were seen for EX subjects in 6-minute walk distances, BDI (total, cognitive/ affective), STAI, FIQ, ASES, and MHI (3 of 5 subscales) scores. These effects were reduced but remained during intent-to-treat analyses. CONCLUSION: Exercise can improve the mood and physical function of individuals with fibromyalgia.

Long-term Effects of Exercise on Psychological Functioning in Older Men and Women

James A. Blumenthal, Charles F. Emery, David J. Madden +7 more · Journal of Gerontology · 1991 · 240 citations

The purpose of this study was to determine the psychological, behavioral, and cognitive changes associated with up to 14 months of aerobic exercise training. For the first 4 months of the study, 101 older (greater than 60 years) men and women were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: Aerobic exercise, Yoga, or a Waiting List control group. Before and following the intervention, all subjects completed a comprehensive assessment battery, including measures of mood and cognitive functioning. A semi-crossover design was employed such that, following completion of the second assessment, all subjects completed 4 months of aerobic exercise and underwent a third assessment. Subjects were given the option of participating in 6 additional months of supervised aerobic exercise (14 months total), and all subjects, regardless of their exercise status, completed a fourth assessment. Results indicated that subjects experienced a 10-15% improvement in aerobic capacity. In general, there were relatively few improvements in cognitive performance associated with aerobic exercise, although subjects who maintained their exercise participation for 14 months experienced improvements in some psychiatric symptoms. However, the healthy subjects in this study were functioning at a relatively high level to begin with, and exercise training may produce greater improvements among elderly with concomitant physical or emotional impairments.

Moderate treadmill exercise rescues anxiety and depression-like behavior as well as memory impairment in a rat model of posttraumatic stress disorder

Gaurav Patki, Lumeng Li, Farida Allam +4 more · Physiology & Behavior · 2014 · 153 citations

Effect of frequent interruptions of prolonged sitting on self-perceived levels of energy, mood, food cravings and cognitive function

Audrey Bergouignan, Kristina T. Legget, Nathan De Jong +7 more · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · 2016 · 118 citations

BACKGROUND: While physical activity has been shown to improve cognitive performance and well-being, office workers are essentially sedentary. We compared the effects of physical activity performed as (i) one bout in the morning or (ii) as microbouts spread out across the day to (iii) a day spent sitting, on mood and energy levels and cognitive function. METHODS: In a randomized crossover trial, 30 sedentary adults completed each of three conditions: 6 h of uninterrupted sitting (SIT), SIT plus 30 min of moderate-intensity treadmill walking in the morning (ONE), and SIT plus six hourly 5-min microbouts of moderate-intensity treadmill walking (MICRO). Self-perceived energy, mood, and appetite were assessed with visual analog scales. Vigor and fatigue were assessed with the Profile of Mood State questionnaire. Cognitive function was measured using a flanker task and the Comprehensive Trail Making Test. Intervention effects were tested using linear mixed models. RESULTS: Both ONE and MICRO increased self-perceived energy and vigor compared to SIT (p < 0.05 for all). MICRO, but not ONE, improved mood, decreased levels of fatigue and reduced food cravings at the end of the day compared to SIT (p < 0.05 for all). Cognitive function was not significantly affected by condition. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to the beneficial impact of physical activity on levels of energy and vigor, spreading out physical activity throughout the day improved mood, decreased feelings of fatigue and affected appetite. Introducing short bouts of activity during the workday of sedentary office workers is a promising approach to improve overall well-being at work without negatively impacting cognitive performance. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT02717377 , registered 22 March 2016.

Examining the Effect of Increased Aerobic Exercise in Moderately Fit Adults on Psychological State and Cognitive Function

Julia C. Basso, Douglas J. Oberlin, Medha K. Satyal +5 more · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · 2022 · 31 citations

Regular physical exercise can decrease the risk for obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, increase life expectancy, and promote psychological health and neurocognitive functioning. Cross-sectional studies show that cardiorespiratory fitness level (VO 2 max) is associated with enhanced brain health, including improved mood state and heightened cognitive performance. Interventional studies are consistent with these cross-sectional studies, but most have focused on low-fit populations. Few such studies have asked if increasing levels of physical activity in moderately fit people can significantly enhance mood, motivation, and cognition. Therefore, the current study investigated the effects of increasing aerobic exercise in moderately fit individuals on psychological state and cognitive performance. We randomly assigned moderately fit healthy adults, 25–59 years of age, who were engaged in one or two aerobic exercise sessions per week to either maintain their exercise regimen ( n = 41) or increase their exercise regimen (i.e., 4–7 aerobic workouts per week; n = 39) for a duration of 3 months. Both before and after the intervention, we assessed aerobic capacity using a modified cardiorespiratory fitness test, and hippocampal functioning via various neuropsychological assessments including a spatial navigation task and the Mnemonic Similarity Task as well as self-reported measures including the Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Beck Anxiety Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Perceived Stress Scale, Rumination Scale, Eating Disorders Examination, Eating Attitudes Test, Body Attitudes Test, and Behavioral Regulation of Exercise Questionnaire. Consistent with our initial working hypotheses, we found that increasing exercise significantly decreased measures of negative affect, including fear, sadness, guilt, and hostility, as well as improved body image. Further, we found that the total number of workouts was significantly associated with improved spatial navigation abilities and body image as well as reduced anxiety, general negative affect, fear, sadness, hostility, rumination, and disordered eating. In addition, increases in fitness levels were significantly associated with improved episodic memory and exercise motivation as well as decreased stress and disordered eating. Our findings are some of the first to indicate that in middle-aged moderately-fit adults, continuing to increase exercise levels in an already ongoing fitness regimen is associated with additional benefits for both psychological and cognitive health.

The science of running

Steve Magness · Origin Press · 2014

Personalized Interactive Music Systems for Physical Activity and Exercise: Exploratory Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Danso A, Kekäläinen T, Koehler F +20 more · JMIR Hum Factors · 2025 · 5 citations

Effects of urban green exercise on mental health: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Hu G, Luo Q, Zhang P +2 more · Front Public Health · 2025 · 11 citations

Exercise Training Improves Selected Aspects of Daytime Functioning in Adults with Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Christopher E. Kline, Gary B. Ewing, James B. Burch +4 more · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · 2012 · 76 citations

Internet-delivered physical activity intervention for college students with mental health disorders: A randomized pilot trial

Emily L. Mailey, Thomas R. Wójcicki, Robert W. Motl +4 more · Psychology Health & Medicine · 2010 · 111 citations

The prevalence of mental health disorders among college students is rising and the increasing rates of anxiety and depression have important societal implications. Physical activity has been proposed as an adjuvant to traditional treatment approaches (i.e. psychotherapy or pharmacotherapy), and the internet is a potentially useful means of delivering physical activity information to the college-aged population. This randomized pilot trial examined the effects of an internet-based physical activity intervention on physical activity, self-efficacy, depression, and anxiety in college students (n = 47) receiving mental health counseling. Physical activity, depression, anxiety, exercise self-efficacy, and barriers self-efficacy were assessed at baseline and post-intervention. There was a significant time effect for physical activity, with both groups increasing their physical activity levels across the 10-week intervention but with a larger increase in the intervention condition (d = 0.68) than the control condition (d = 0.05). Exercise and barriers self-efficacy declined across the intervention, but more so in the control than intervention condition. Effects on depression and anxiety were nonsignificant. Finally, correlation analyses showed increases in physical activity were associated with increases in exercise self-efficacy (r = 0.62) and barriers self-efficacy (r = 0.63) and decreases in depression (r = -0.44) in the intervention condition, but not in the control condition. These results suggest that an internet-delivered physical activity intervention may be a promising approach to promoting physical activity among college students undergoing mental health counseling.

The effects of co-designed physical activity interventions in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Zacharuk A, Ferguson A, Komar C +6 more · PLoS One · 2024 · 8 citations

Acute Effects of Exercise on Neuropsychological Function in Elderly Subjects

D. William Molloy, D. A. Beerschoten, Michael Borrie +2 more · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · 1988 · 99 citations

Fit elderly score higher on tests of fluid intelligence than aged-matched sedentary controls. Elderly patients who have taken part in exercise programs have shown improvement in mental function. We compared the effects of 45 minutes of exercise on memory, mood, and cognitive function in elderly subjects to a control intervention using a randomized control study design. Neuropsychological tests employed where the color slide test, digit symbol test, digit span test, logical memory test, word fluency test, and the Mini-Mental State Examination. We measured mood using a mood test and geriatric depression scale. Each subject was tested before, and immediately after, control and exercise sessions. Fifteen elderly subjects [ten men and five women; mean age, 66 years, (range, 60 to 85 years)] completed the study. There was a greater improvement in six of the eight scores of cognitive function following exercise, compared to control. These differences were significantly greater following exercise for the logical memory test score (P less than or equal to 0.02) and Mini-Mental State Examination (P less than or equal to 0.025) compared with the control intervention.

Effects of reducing sedentary behaviour by increasing physical activity, on cognitive function, brain function and structure across the lifespan: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Feter N, Ligeza TS, Bashir N +28 more · Br J Sports Med · 2024 · 30 citations

Interrupting prolonged sitting with multiple short bouts of physical activity acutely improves cognitive function, suggesting that even brief activity breaks can offer immediate mental benefits for self-experimenters.

Effects of exercise on cognitive function in older patients with Alzheimer's disease: a meta-regression and meta-analysis.

Xu F, Zhang Y, Tan D +3 more · Front Public Health · 2026 · 0 citations

This meta-analysis found that exercise significantly improved global cognitive function in older adults with Alzheimer's disease, with benefits notably enhanced by exercising more than five times per week and sustained for at least 12 weeks.

Effectiveness of exercise interventions to improve long-term outcomes in people living with mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Dieckelmann M, González-González AI, Banzer W +7 more · Sci Rep · 2023 · 19 citations

This meta-analysis synthesized evidence on exercise for mild cognitive impairment (MCI), suggesting that structured exercise programs, particularly those combining aerobic and strength training, may offer small but meaningful long-term benefits for cognitive function and daily living in people with MCI, providing a strong rationale for self-experimentation with consistent exercise.

Domain-specific physical activity and mental health: an updated systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis in a combined sample of 3.3 million people.

Teychenne M, Sousa GM, Baker T +18 more · Br J Sports Med · 2026 · 22 citations

Could physical activity promote indicators of physical and psychological health among children and adolescents? An umbrella review of meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials.

Cai S, Wang H, Zhang YH +19 more · World J Pediatr · 2025 · 6 citations

Are Physical Activity Interventions Effective in Improving Health-Related Quality of Life in Children and Adolescents? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Bermejo-Cantarero A, Sánchez-López M, Álvarez-Bueno C +3 more · Sports Health · 2024 · 27 citations

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to synthesize existing research on whether physical activity interventions improve health-related quality of life in children and adolescents, but the specific findings regarding effect sizes and practical implications are not available from the provided text.

The Effectiveness of Dance Interventions on Psychological and Cognitive Health Outcomes Compared with Other Forms of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis.

Fong Yan A, Nicholson LL, Ward RE +6 more · Sports Med · 2024 · 89 citations

This meta-analysis likely found that dance interventions are an effective and enjoyable way to improve psychological well-being and cognitive function, often performing as well as or better than other forms of physical activity, making them a promising avenue for personal experiments aimed at boosting mental and brain health.

Chronic exercise effects on overall depression severity and distinct depressive symptoms in older adults: A protocol of a systematic and meta-analytic review.

Mack M, Badache A, Erden A +10 more · PLoS One · 2024 · 5 citations

This is a protocol for a planned systematic review and meta-analysis that will investigate how different types, intensities, and durations of chronic exercise affect both overall depression severity and specific depressive symptoms (sleep, fatigue, anxiety, mood, cognition) in adults aged 60+, with the goal of identifying which exercise programs work best for which symptoms and which individuals.

Effectiveness of physical activity interventions on undergraduate students' mental health: systematic review and meta-analysis.

Huang K, Beckman EM, Ng N +6 more · Health Promot Int · 2024 · 47 citations

This meta-analysis synthesized evidence across multiple studies, indicating that various physical activity interventions can improve mental health outcomes like depression, anxiety, and stress in undergraduate students, suggesting that incorporating regular exercise is a promising strategy for personal well-being experiments.

The effects of different types of leisure-time physical activity on positive mental health among adolescents: a mixed-methods systematic review and meta-analysis.

Lenze L, Benzing V, Schmid J +3 more · Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act · 2025 · 5 citations

This mixed-methods systematic review and meta-analysis found that the positive mental health benefits of leisure-time physical activity in adolescents vary significantly depending on the specific type of activity and the particular aspect of mental health being measured, with social interaction consistently emerging as a key facilitator.

Move to improve: Meta-analysis of workplace physical activity interventions.

Nath A, Schimmelpfennig S, Kreienbaum C +1 more · J Occup Health Psychol · 2025 · 2 citations

Aerobic exercise and cognitive therapy in the treatment of dysphoric moods

Jeffrey Fremont, Linda W. Craighead · Cognitive Therapy and Research · 1987 · 152 citations

The Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Divergent and Convergent Thinking and Its Influence by Mood

Kohei Aga, Masato Inamura, Chong Chen +8 more · Brain Sciences · 2021 · 40 citations

Abundant evidence shows that various forms of physical exercise, even conducted briefly, may improve cognitive functions. However, the effect of physical exercise on creative thinking remains under-investigated, and the role of mood in this effect remains unclear. In the present study, we set out to investigate the effect of an acute bout of aerobic exercise on divergent and convergent thinking and whether this effect depends on the post-exercise mood. Forty healthy young adults were randomly assigned to receive a 15-min exercise or control intervention, before and after which they conducted an alternate use test measuring divergent thinking and an insight problem-solving task measuring convergent thinking. It was found that exercise enhanced divergent thinking in that it increased flexibility and fluency. Importantly, these effects were not mediated by the post-exercise mood in terms of pleasure and vigor. In contrast, the effect on convergent thinking depended on subjects' mood after exercise: subjects reporting high vigor tended to solve more insight problems that were unsolved previously, while those reporting low vigor became less capable of solving previously unsolved problems. These findings suggest that aerobic exercise may affect both divergent and convergent thinking, with the former being mood-independent and the latter mood-dependent. If these findings can be replicated with more rigorous studies, engaging in a bout of mood, particularly vigor-enhancing aerobic exercise, may be considered a useful strategy for gaining insights into previously unsolved problems.

Engaging in physical activity instead of (over)using the smartphone: An experimental investigation of lifestyle interventions to prevent problematic smartphone use and to promote mental health

Lena-Marie Precht, Franziska Mertens, Debora S. Brickau +4 more · Journal of Public Health · 2023 · 29 citations

Aim: Tendencies of problematic smartphone use (PSU) have risen during the past decade. As PSU is consistently linked to mental health issues, measures to prevent its appearance and to promote mental health are urgently required. Subject and Methods: = 10.51, range: 18-79) participated in the study. Over 14 days, the three experimental groups (a) reduced their daily smartphone use time by 60 minutes, (b) increased their daily level of physical activity by 30 minutes, and (c) combined both measures. The control group continued its behavior as usual. Outcomes were assessed via online surveys at five measurement time points (baseline, intermediate, post-intervention, and 1 and 3 months after the intervention). Results: All interventions resulted in a significant increase in weekly physical activity and in reduced symptoms of PSU, depression, and anxiety. Furthermore, the smartphone reduction and the combination of both measures contributed to a significant reduction of participants' daily smartphone use and higher levels of PMH. The effects of the reduction of smartphone use time and its combination with increased physical activity were more stable in the longer term than the increase in physical activity only. Conclusion: Combined with an increase in physical activity, the reduction of smartphone use time could serve as an efficient and cost-effective measure for the prevention of PSU and the promotion of mental health.

The effects of green exercise on the mental and physical health of people with chronic conditions: a systematic review.

Tsokani A, Stefanouli V, Adriaenssens N +3 more · Int J Environ Health Res · 2025 · 2 citations