Cognitive Performance

Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review.

Melby-Lervåg M, Hulme C · Dev Psychol · 2013 · 1,765 citations

Working memory training programs produce reliable short-term improvements on the specific tasks you practice, but these gains do not transfer to other cognitive skills like IQ, reading, math, or attention control — meaning the evidence does not support using these programs to boost general intelligence or academic performance.

Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes.

Rapport MD, Orban SA, Kofler MJ +1 more · Clin Psychol Rev · 2013 · 510 citations

Computer-based cognitive training programs for children with ADHD produce moderate improvements only on the specific task being trained (near transfer), but these gains do not translate into meaningful improvements in academic performance, real-world behavior, or general cognitive ability (far transfer), and unblinded raters report benefits that are three times larger than objective tests show, suggesting placebo-like expectancy effects.

Working memory training in typically developing children: A meta-analysis of the available evidence.

Sala G, Gobet F · Dev Psychol · 2017 · 216 citations

Working memory training in typically developing children produces moderate improvements on tasks very similar to the training itself (near-transfer, effect size g = 0.46), but produces negligible to zero improvement on real-world outcomes like intelligence, maths, reading, or attention (far-transfer, effect size g = 0.12). For someone running a self-experiment, this means you should expect to get better at the training game itself, but don't count on it boosting your general cognitive abilities or academic performance.

Effects of a computerized working memory training program on working memory, attention, and academics in adolescents with severe LD and comorbid ADHD: a randomized controlled trial.

Gray SA, Chaban P, Martinussen R +5 more · J Child Psychol Psychiatry · 2012 · 267 citations

Computerized working memory training (Cogmed RM) improved performance on some working memory tests in adolescents with severe learning disabilities and ADHD, but these gains did not transfer to improvements in attention, behavior, or academic skills — meaning the training made them better at the trained tasks but not at real-world functioning.

Effects of the FITKids Randomized Controlled Trial on Executive Control and Brain Function

Charles H. Hillman, Matthew B. Pontifex, Darla M. Castelli +7 more · PEDIATRICS · 2014 · 645 citations

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of a physical activity (PA) intervention on brain and behavioral indices of executive control in preadolescent children. METHODS: Two hundred twenty-one children (7-9 years) were randomly assigned to a 9-month afterschool PA program or a wait-list control. In addition to changes in fitness (maximal oxygen consumption), electrical activity in the brain (P3-ERP) and behavioral measures (accuracy, reaction time) of executive control were collected by using tasks that modulated attentional inhibition and cognitive flexibility. RESULTS: Fitness improved more among intervention participants from pretest to posttest compared with the wait-list control (1.3 mL/kg per minute, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.3 to 2.4; d = 0.34 for group difference in pre-to-post change score). Intervention participants exhibited greater improvements from pretest to posttest in inhibition (3.2%, 95% CI: 0.0 to 6.5; d = 0.27) and cognitive flexibility (4.8%, 95% CI: 1.1 to 8.4; d = 0.35 for group difference in pre-to-post change score) compared with control. Only the intervention group increased attentional resources from pretest to posttest during tasks requiring increased inhibition (1.4 µV, 95% CI: 0.3 to 2.6; d = 0.34) and cognitive flexibility (1.5 µV, 95% CI: 0.6 to 2.5; d = 0.43). Finally, improvements in brain function on the inhibition task (r = 0.22) and performance on the flexibility task correlated with intervention attendance (r = 0.24). CONCLUSIONS: The intervention enhanced cognitive performance and brain function during tasks requiring greater executive control. These findings demonstrate a causal effect of a PA program on executive control, and provide support for PA for improving childhood cognition and brain health.

Using virtual reality-based training to improve cognitive function, instrumental activities of daily living and neural efficiency in older adults with mild cognitive impairment

Ying-Yi Liao, Han‐Yun Tseng, Yi‐Jia Lin +2 more · European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · 2020 · 260 citations

BACKGROUND: A combination of physical and cognitive training appears to be the effective intervention to improve cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Computing technology such as virtual reality (VR) may have the potential to assist rehabilitation in shaping brain health. However, little is known about the potential of VR-based physical and cognitive training designed as an intervention for cognition and brain activation in elderly patients with MCI. Moreover, whether a VR program designed around functional tasks can improve their instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) requires further investigation. AIM: This study investigated the effects of 12 weeks of VR-based physical and cognitive training on cognitive function, brain activation and IADL and compared the VR intervention with combined physical and cognitive training. DESIGN: A single-blinded randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Communities and day care centers in Taipei, Taiwan. POPULATION: Older adults with mild cognitive impairment. METHODS: Thirty-four community-dwelling older adults with MCI were randomized into either a VR-based physical and cognitive training (VR) group or a combined physical and cognitive training (CPC) group for 36 sessions over 12 weeks. Participants were assessed for their cognitive function (global cognition, executive function and verbal memory) and IADL at pre- and postintervention. Changes in prefrontal cortex activation during the global cognition test were also captured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to identify the potential mediating pathway of the intervention. RESULTS: Both groups showed improved executive function and verbal memory (immediate recall). However, only the VR group showed significant improvements in global cognition (P<0.001), verbal memory (delayed recall, P=0.002), and IADL (P<0.001) after the intervention. The group × time interaction effects further demonstrated that IADL were more significantly improved with VR training than with CPC training (P=0.006). The hemodynamic data revealed decreased activation in prefrontal areas after training (P=0.0015), indicative of increased neural efficiency, in the VR-trained subjects. CONCLUSIONS: VR-based physical and cognitive training improves cognitive function, IADL and neural efficiency in older adults with MCI. CLINICAL REHABILITATION IMPACT: VR training could be implemented for older adults with MCI.

The Effect of a Virtual Reality-Based Intervention Program on Cognition in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized Control Trial

Ngeemasara Thapa, Hye Jin Park, Hye Jin Park +8 more · Journal of Clinical Medicine · 2020 · 236 citations

This study aimed to investigate the association between a virtual reality (VR) intervention program and cognitive, brain and physical functions in high-risk older adults. In a randomized controlled trial, we enrolled 68 individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The MCI diagnosis was based on medical evaluations through a clinical interview conducted by a dementia specialist. Cognitive assessments were performed by neuropsychologists according to standardized methods, including the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and frontal cognitive function: trail making test (TMT) A & B, and symbol digit substitute test (SDST). Resting state electroencephalogram (EEG) was measured in eyes open and eyes closed conditions for 5 minutes each, with a 19-channel wireless EEG device. The VR intervention program (3 times/week, 100 min each session) comprised four types of VR game-based content to improve the attention, memory and processing speed. Analysis of the subjects for group-time interactions revealed that the intervention group exhibited a significantly improved executive function and brain function at the resting state. Additionally, gait speed and mobility were also significantly improved between and after the follow-up. The VR-based training program improved cognitive and physical function in patients with MCI relative to controls. Encouraging patients to perform VR and game-based training may be beneficial to prevent cognitive decline.

A randomized controlled trial of a cognitive rehabilitation intervention for persons with multiple sclerosis

Alexa K Stuifbergen, Heather Becker, Frank I. Perez +3 more · Clinical Rehabilitation · 2012 · 108 citations

An 8-week program combining group sessions on cognitive strategies with computer-based training showed promise in improving verbal memory and increasing the use of memory strategies in people with multiple sclerosis, suggesting a potential avenue for self-experimentation to manage cognitive symptoms.

Effects of Physical-Cognitive Dual Task Training on Executive Function and Gait Performance in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Falbo S, Condello G, Capranica L +2 more · Biomed Res Int · 2016 · 141 citations

Twelve weeks of physical-cognitive dual task training (walking while performing cognitive tasks) preserved or improved inhibitory control in older adults, while physical training alone led to a decline in inhibition — and the improvement in inhibition was directly linked to better dual-task walking performance, especially when navigating obstacles.

Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later

John Sweller, Jeroen J. G. van Merriënboer, Fred Paas · Educational Psychology Review · 2019 · 1,841 citations

Cognitive load theory was introduced in the 1980s as an instructional design theory based on several uncontroversial aspects of human cognitive architecture. Our knowledge of many of the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory and the relations between them had been well-established for many decades prior to the introduction of the theory. Curiously, this knowledge had had a limited impact on the field of instructional design with most instructional design recommendations proceeding as though working memory and long-term memory did not exist. In contrast, cognitive load theory emphasised that all novel information first is processed by a capacity and duration limited working memory and then stored in an unlimited long-term memory for later use. Once information is stored in long-term memory, the capacity and duration limits of working memory disappear transforming our ability to function. By the late 1990s, sufficient data had been collected using the theory to warrant an extended analysis resulting in the publication of Sweller et al. (Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296, 1998). Extensive further theoretical and empirical work have been carried out since that time and this paper is an attempt to summarise the last 20 years of cognitive load theory and to sketch directions for future research.

The quest for synergy between physical exercise and cognitive stimulation via exergaming in people with dementia: a randomized controlled trial

Esther G.A. Karssemeijer, Justine A. Aaronson, Willem Bossers +3 more · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · 2019 · 141 citations

Exercise is often proposed as a non-pharmacological intervention to delay cognitive decline in people with dementia, but evidence remains inconclusive. Previous studies suggest that combining physical exercise with cognitive stimulation may be more successful in this respect. Exergaming is a promising intervention in which physical exercise is combined with cognitively challenging tasks in a single session. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of exergame training and aerobic training on cognitive functioning in older adults with dementia. A three-armed randomized controlled trial (RCT) compared exergame training, aerobic training and an active control intervention consisting of relaxation and flexibility exercises. Individuals with dementia were randomized and individually trained three times a week during 12 weeks. Cognitive functioning was measured at baseline, after the 12-week intervention period and at 24-week follow-up by neuropsychological assessment. The domains of executive function, episodic memory, working memory and psychomotor speed were evaluated. Test scores were converted into standardized z-scores that were averaged per domain. Between-group differences were analysed with analysis of covariance. Data from 115 people with dementia (mean (SD) age = 79.2 (6.9) years; mean (SD) MMSE score = 22.9 (3.4)) were analysed. There was a significant improvement in psychomotor speed in the aerobic and exergame groups compared to the active control group (mean difference domain score (95% CI) aerobic versus control 0.370 (0.103–0.637), p = 0.007; exergame versus control 0.326 (0.081–0.571), p = 0.009). The effect size was moderate (partial η2 = 0.102). No significant differences between the intervention and control groups were found for executive functioning, episodic memory and working memory. To our knowledge, this is the first RCT evaluating the effects of exergame training and aerobic training on cognitive functioning in people with dementia. We found that both exergame training and aerobic training improve psychomotor speed, compared to an active control group. This finding may be clinically relevant as psychomotor speed is an important predictor for functional decline. No effects were found on executive function, episodic memory and working memory. Netherlands Trial Register, NTR5581 . Registered on 7 October 2015.

Effects of cognitive training in Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled trial.

Petrelli A, Kaesberg S, Barbe MT +4 more · Parkinsonism Relat Disord · 2014 · 109 citations

A structured 6-week cognitive training program improved short-term memory and working memory in non-demented Parkinson's patients compared to no training, while an unstructured "brain jogging" program reduced depression symptoms but did not improve cognition — suggesting that the type of mental exercise matters for which outcomes improve.

The Effect of an Online Cognitive Training Package in Healthy Older Adults: An Online Randomized Controlled Trial

Anne Corbett, Adrian M. Owen, Adam Hampshire +8 more · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · 2015 · 223 citations

Effects of Cognitive Training Interventions With Older Adults

Karlene Ball, Daniel B. Berch, Karin F. Helmers +10 more · JAMA · 2002 · 2,018 citations

CONTEXT: Cognitive function in older adults is related to independent living and need for care. However, few studies have addressed whether improving cognitive functions might have short- or long-term effects on activities related to living independently. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether 3 cognitive training interventions improve mental abilities and daily functioning in older, independent-living adults. DESIGN: Randomized, controlled, single-blind trial with recruitment conducted from March 1998 to October 1999 and 2-year follow-up through December 2001. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Volunteer sample of 2832 persons aged 65 to 94 years recruited from senior housing, community centers, and hospital/clinics in 6 metropolitan areas in the United States. INTERVENTIONS: Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: 10-session group training for memory (verbal episodic memory; n = 711), or reasoning (ability to solve problems that follow a serial pattern; n = 705), or speed of processing (visual search and identification; n = 712); or a no-contact control group (n = 704). For the 3 treatment groups, 4-session booster training was offered to a 60% random sample 11 months later. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Cognitive function and cognitively demanding everyday functioning. RESULTS: Thirty participants were incorrectly randomized and were excluded from the analysis. Each intervention improved the targeted cognitive ability compared with baseline, durable to 2 years (P<.001 for all). Eighty-seven percent of speed-, 74% of reasoning-, and 26% of memory-trained participants demonstrated reliable cognitive improvement immediately after the intervention period. Booster training enhanced training gains in speed (P<.001) and reasoning (P<.001) interventions (speed booster, 92%; no booster, 68%; reasoning booster, 72%; no booster, 49%), which were maintained at 2-year follow-up (P<.001 for both). No training effects on everyday functioning were detected at 2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Results support the effectiveness and durability of the cognitive training interventions in improving targeted cognitive abilities. Training effects were of a magnitude equivalent to the amount of decline expected in elderly persons without dementia over 7- to 14-year intervals. Because of minimal functional decline across all groups, longer follow-up is likely required to observe training effects on everyday function.

Brain training with non-action video games enhances aspects of cognition in older adults: a randomized controlled trial

Soledad Ballesteros, A. Fernandez Prieto, Julia Mayas +5 more · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · 2014 · 187 citations

Age-related cognitive and brain declines can result in functional deterioration in many cognitive domains, dependency, and dementia. A major goal of aging research is to investigate methods that help to maintain brain health, cognition, independent living and wellbeing in older adults. This randomized controlled study investigated the effects of 20 1-h non-action video game training sessions with games selected from a commercially available package (Lumosity) on a series of age-declined cognitive functions and subjective wellbeing. Two groups of healthy older adults participated in the study, the experimental group who received the training and the control group who attended three meetings with the research team along the study. Groups were similar at baseline on demographics, vocabulary, global cognition, and depression status. All participants were assessed individually before and after the intervention, or a similar period of time, using neuropsychological tests and laboratory tasks to investigate possible transfer effects. The results showed significant improvements in the trained group, and no variation in the control group, in processing speed (choice reaction time), attention (reduction of distraction and increase of alertness), immediate and delayed visual recognition memory, as well as a trend to improve in Affection and Assertivity, two dimensions of the Wellbeing Scale. Visuospatial working memory (WM) and executive control (shifting strategy) did not improve. Overall, the current results support the idea that training healthy older adults with non-action video games will enhance some cognitive abilities but not others.

Cognitive Benefits of Social Dancing and Walking in Old Age: The Dancing Mind Randomized Controlled Trial

Dafna Merom, Anne Grunseit, Ranmalee Eramudugolla +3 more · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · 2016 · 112 citations

BACKGROUND: A physically active lifestyle has the potential to prevent cognitive decline and dementia, yet the optimal type of physical activity/exercise remains unclear. Dance is of special interest as it complex sensorimotor rhythmic activity with additional cognitive, social, and affective dimensions. OBJECTIVES: To determine whether dance benefits executive function more than walking, an activity that is simple and functional. METHODS: Two-arm randomized controlled trial among community-dwelling older adults. The intervention group received 1 h of ballroom dancing twice weekly over 8 months (~69 sessions) in local community dance studios. The control group received a combination of a home walking program with a pedometer and optional biweekly group-based walking in local community park to facilitate socialization. MAIN OUTCOMES: Executive function tests: processing speed and task shift by the Trail Making Tests, response inhibition by the Stroop Color-Word Test, working memory by the Digit Span Backwards test, immediate and delayed verbal recall by the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and visuospatial recall by the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test (BVST). RESULTS: One hundred and fifteen adults (mean 69.5 years, SD 6.4) completed baseline and delayed baseline (3 weeks apart) before being randomized to either dance (n = 60) or walking (n = 55). Of those randomized, 79 (68%) completed the follow-up measurements (32 weeks from baseline). In the dance group only, "non-completers" had significantly lower baseline scores on all executive function tests than those who completed the full program. Intention-to-treat analyses showed no group effect. In a random effects model including participants who completed all measurements, adjusted for baseline score and covariates (age, education, estimated verbal intelligence, and community), a between-group effect in favor of dance was noted only for BVST total learning (Cohen's D Effect size 0.29, p = 0.07) and delayed recall (Cohen's D Effect size = 0.34, p = 0.06). CONCLUSION: The superior potential of dance over walking on executive functions of cognitively healthy and active older adults was not supported. Dance improved one of the cognitive domains (spatial memory) important for learning dance. Controlled trials targeting inactive older adults and of a higher dose may produce stronger effects, particularly for novice dancers. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Register (ACTRN12613000782730).

The impact of cognitive function on medication management: Three studies.

Carol S. Stilley, Catherine M. Bender, Jacqueline Dunbar‐Jacob +2 more · Health Psychology · 2010 · 245 citations

OBJECTIVE: Medication nonadherence has been a persistent problem over the past three decades; forgetting and being distracted from regular routines are the barriers most frequently cited by patients. Prior research on cognitive function and medication adherence has yielded mixed results. DESIGN: This report compares findings of three studies: All were longitudinal, two were randomized controlled intervention trials, and one was descriptive. Samples of adult patients taking once daily lipid-lowering medication, diabetic patients with comorbid conditions on complex regimens, and early stage breast cancer patients on hormonal therapy completed similar batteries of standardized, valid, neuropsychological tests at baseline. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Adherence to medication regimens, over time, was tracked with electronic event monitors. RESULTS: Medication nonadherence was prevalent in all studies. Deficits in attention/mental flexibility and/or working memory predicted nonadherence in all studies; impaired executive function was related to poor adherence in one study. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that better mental efficiency may be the key to better medication adherence with any regimen, and that targeted cognitive functions, which can be easily and quickly assessed, may identify patients at risk of poor adherence regardless of diagnosis or regimen.

Effectiveness of a School-Based Physical Activity Intervention on Cognitive Performance in Danish Adolescents: LCoMotion—Learning, Cognition and Motion – A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

Jakob Tarp, Sidsel L. Domazet, Karsten Froberg +3 more · PLoS ONE · 2016 · 86 citations

BACKGROUND: Physical activity is associated not only with health-related parameters, but also with cognitive and academic performance. However, no large scale school-based physical activity interventions have investigated effects on cognitive performance in adolescents. The aim of this study was to describe the effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention in enhancing cognitive performance in 12-14 years old adolescents. METHODS: A 20 week cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted including seven intervention and seven control schools. A total of 632 students (mean (SD) age: 12.9 (0.6) years) completed the trial with baseline and follow-up data on primary or secondary outcomes (74% of randomized subjects). The intervention targeted physical activity during academic subjects, recess, school transportation and leisure-time. Cognitive performance was assessed using an executive functions test of inhibition (flanker task) with the primary outcomes being accuracy and reaction time on congruent and incongruent trials. Secondary outcomes included mathematics performance, physical activity levels, body-mass index, waist-circumference and cardiorespiratory fitness. RESULTS: No significant difference in change, comparing the intervention group to the control group, was observed on the primary outcomes (p's>0.05) or mathematics skills (p>0.05). An intervention effect was found for cardiorespiratory fitness in girls (21 meters (95% CI: 4.4-38.6) and body-mass index in boys (-0.22 kg/m2 (95% CI: -0.39-0.05). Contrary to our predictions, a significantly larger change in interference control for reaction time was found in favor of the control group (5.0 milliseconds (95% CI: 0-9). Baseline to mid-intervention changes in physical activity levels did not differ significantly between groups (all p's>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: No evidence was found for effectiveness of a 20-week multi-faceted school-based physical activity intervention for enhancing executive functioning or mathematics skills compared to a control group, but low implementation fidelity precludes interpretation of the causal relationship. TRIAL REGISTRATION: www.ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02012881.

Working Memory Underpins Cognitive Development, Learning, and Education

Nelson Cowan · Educational Psychology Review · 2013 · 808 citations

Time and cognitive load in working memory.

Pierre Barrouillet, Sophie Bernardin, Sophie Portrat +2 more · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · 2007 · 608 citations

According to the time-based resource-sharing model (P. Barrouillet, S. Bernardin, & V. Camos, 2004), the cognitive load a given task involves is a function of the proportion of time during which it captures attention, thus impeding other attention-demanding processes. Accordingly, the present study demonstrates that the disruptive effect on concurrent maintenance of memory retrievals and response selections increases with their duration. Moreover, the effect on recall performance of concurrent activities does not go beyond their duration insofar as the processes are attention demanding. Finally, these effects are not modality specific, as spatial processing was found to disrupt verbal maintenance. These results suggest a sequential and time-based function of working memory in which processing and storage rely on a single and general purpose attentional resource needed to run executive processes devoted to constructing, maintaining, and modifying ephemeral representations.

Efficacy of multi-domain cognitive function training on cognitive function, working memory, attention, and coordination in older adults with mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia: A one-year prospective randomised controlled trial.

Sung CM, Lee TY, Chu H +7 more · J Glob Health · 2023 · 23 citations

A one-year program of structured multi-domain cognitive training (combining computer-based exercises, physical activity, and social engagement) produced small but statistically significant improvements in global cognitive function and working memory in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and mild dementia, compared to a control group receiving only standard medical care — but the effects were modest and not clinically meaningful for most individuals.

What is working memory capacity, and how can we measure it?

Oliver Wilhelm, Andrea Hildebrandt, Klaus Oberauer · Frontiers in Psychology · 2013 · 468 citations

A latent variable study examined whether different classes of working-memory tasks measure the same general construct of working-memory capacity (WMC). Data from 270 subjects were used to examine the relationship between Binding, Updating, Recall-N-back, and Complex Span tasks, and the relations of WMC with secondary memory measures, indicators of cognitive control from two response-conflict paradigms (Simon task and Eriksen flanker task), and fluid intelligence. Confirmatory factor analyses support the concept of a general WMC factor. Results from structural-equation modeling show negligible relations of WMC with response-conflict resolution, and very strong relations of WMC with secondary memory and fluid intelligence. The findings support the hypothesis that individual differences in WMC reflect the ability to build, maintain and update arbitrary bindings.

Auditory training can improve working memory, attention, and communication in adverse conditions for adults with hearing loss

Melanie Ferguson, Helen Henshaw · Frontiers in Psychology · 2015 · 122 citations

Auditory training (AT) helps compensate for degradation in the auditory signal. A series of three high-quality training studies are discussed, which include, (i) a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of phoneme discrimination in quiet that trained adults with mild hearing loss (n = 44), (ii) a repeated measures study that trained phoneme discrimination in noise in hearing aid (HA) users (n = 30), and (iii) a double-blind RCT that directly trained working memory (WM) in HA users (n = 57). AT resulted in generalized improvements in measures of self-reported hearing, competing speech, and complex cognitive tasks that all index executive functions. This suggests that for AT related benefits, the development of complex cognitive skills may be more important than the refinement of sensory processing. Furthermore, outcome measures should be sensitive to the functional benefits of AT. For WM training, lack of far-transfer to untrained outcomes suggests no generalized benefits to real-world listening abilities. We propose that combined auditory-cognitive training approaches, where cognitive enhancement is embedded within auditory tasks, are most likely to offer generalized benefits to the real-world listening abilities of adults with hearing loss.

Working-memory training in younger and older adults: training gains, transfer, and maintenance

Yvonne Brehmer, Helena Westerberg, Lars Bäckman · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · 2012 · 452 citations

Working memory (WM), a key determinant of many higher-order cognitive functions, declines in old age. Current research attempts to develop process-specific WM training procedures, which may lead to general cognitive improvement. Adaptivity of the training as well as the comparison of training gains to performance changes of an active control group are key factors in evaluating the effectiveness of a specific training program. In the present study, 55 younger adults (20-30 years of age) and 45 older adults (60-70 years of age) received 5 weeks of computerized training on various spatial and verbal WM tasks. Half of the sample received adaptive training (i.e., individually adjusted task difficulty), whereas the other half-worked on the same task material but on a low task difficulty level (active controls). Performance was assessed using criterion, near-transfer, and far-transfer tasks before training, after 5 weeks of intervention, as well as after a 3-month follow-up interval. Results indicate that (a) adaptive training generally led to larger training gains than low-level practice, (b) training and transfer gains were somewhat greater for younger than for older adults in some tasks, but comparable across age groups in other tasks, (c) far-transfer was observed to a test on sustained attention and for a self-rating scale on cognitive functioning in daily life for both young and old, and (d) training gains and transfer effects were maintained across the 3-month follow-up interval across age.

Why does working memory capacity predict variation in reading comprehension? On the influence of mind wandering and executive attention.

Jennifer C. McVay, Michael J. Kane · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · 2011 · 572 citations

Some people are better readers than others, and this variation in comprehension ability is predicted by measures of working memory capacity (WMC). The primary goal of this study was to investigate the mediating role of mind-wandering experiences in the association between WMC and normal individual differences in reading comprehension, as predicted by the executive-attention theory of WMC (e.g., Engle & Kane, 2004). We used a latent-variable, structural-equation-model approach, testing skilled adult readers on 3 WMC span tasks, 7 varied reading-comprehension tasks, and 3 attention-control tasks. Mind wandering was assessed using experimenter-scheduled thought probes during 4 different tasks (2 reading, 2 attention-control). The results support the executive-attention theory of WMC. Mind wandering across the 4 tasks loaded onto a single latent factor, reflecting a stable individual difference. Most important, mind wandering was a significant mediator in the relationship between WMC and reading comprehension, suggesting that the WMC-comprehension correlation is driven, in part, by attention control over intruding thoughts. We discuss implications for theories of WMC, attention control, and reading comprehension.

A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Computer-Assisted Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia

Dwight Dickinson, Wendy N. Tenhula, Sarah E. Morris +6 more · American Journal of Psychiatry · 2009 · 156 citations

OBJECTIVE: There is considerable interest in cognitive remediation for schizophrenia, but its essential components are still unclear. The goal of the current study was to develop a broadly targeted computer-assisted cognitive remediation program and conduct a rigorous clinical trial in a large group of schizophrenia patients. METHOD: Sixty-nine people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder were randomly assigned to 36 sessions of computer-assisted cognitive remediation or an active control condition. Remediation broadly targeted cognitive and everyday performance by providing supportive, graduated training and practice in selecting, executing, and monitoring cognitive operations. It used engaging computer-based cognitive exercises and one-on-one training. A total of 61 individuals (34 in remediation group, 27 in control group) engaged in treatment, completed posttreatment assessments, and were included in intent-to-treat analyses. Primary outcomes were remediation exercise metrics, neuropsychological composites (episodic memory, working memory, attention, executive functioning, and processing speed), and proxy measures of community functioning. RESULTS: Regression modeling indicated that performance on eight of 10 exercise metrics improved significantly more in the remediation condition than in the control condition. The mean effect size, favoring the remediation condition, was 0.53 across all 10 metrics. However, there were no significant benefits of cognitive remediation on any neuropsychological or functional outcome measure, either immediately after treatment or at the 3-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive remediation for people with schizophrenia was effective in improving performance on computer exercises, but the benefits of training did not generalize to broader neuropsychological or functional outcome measures. The evidence for this treatment approach remains mixed.

Enhanced physical and cognitive performance in active duty Airmen: evidence from a randomized multimodal physical fitness and nutritional intervention

Christopher E. Zwilling, Adam J. Strang, Evan D. Anderson +5 more · Scientific Reports · 2020 · 26 citations

Achieving military mission objectives requires high levels of performance from Airmen who operate under extreme physical and cognitive demands. Thus, there is a critical need to establish scientific interventions to enhance physical fitness and cognitive performance-promoting the resilience of Airmen and aiding in mission success. We therefore conducted a comprehensive, 12-week randomized controlled trial in active-duty Air Force Airmen (n = 148) to compare the efficacy of a multimodal intervention comprised of high-intensity interval aerobic fitness and strength training paired with a novel nutritional supplement [comprised of β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate (HMB), lutein, phospholipids, DHA and selected micronutrients including B12 and folic acid] to high-intensity interval aerobic fitness and strength training paired with a standard of care placebo beverage. The exercise intervention alone improved several dimensions of physical fitness [strength and endurance (+ 8.3%), power (+ 0.85%), mobility and stability (+ 22%), heart rate (- 1.1%) and lean muscle mass (+ 1.4%)] and cognitive function [(episodic memory (+ 9.5%), processing efficiency (+ 7.5%), executive function reaction time (- 4.8%) and fluid intelligence accuracy (+ 19.5%)]. Relative to exercise training alone, the multimodal fitness and nutritional intervention further improved working memory (+ 9.0%), fluid intelligence reaction time (- 7.7%), processing efficiency (+ 1.8%), heart rate (- 2.4%) and lean muscle mass (+ 1.5%). These findings establish the efficacy of a multimodal intervention that incorporates aerobic fitness and strength training with a novel nutritional supplement to enhance military performance objectives and to provide optimal exercise training and nutritional support for the modern warfighter.

Compensatory Cognitive Training for Psychosis: Who Benefits? Who Stays in Treatment?

Elizabeth W. Twamley, Cynthia Burton, Lea Vella · Schizophrenia Bulletin · 2011 · 108 citations

Enhancing cognitive performance to improve functioning in schizophrenia is a fundamental research priority. Previous investigations have demonstrated that various types of cognitive training (CT) can improve neuropsychological performance, psychosocial functioning, and psychiatric symptom severity. However, there is limited information about individual differences that may predict CT response and adherence to treatment. The purpose of this study was to identify who is likely to drop out of this type of study as well as this type of intervention and to explore individual factors predicting treatment outcome. Participants included 89 outpatients diagnosed with a primary psychotic disorder who enrolled in a randomized controlled trial of compensatory CT and were assessed at baseline, 3 months (posttest), and 6 months (follow-up). Study completers had more formal education and lower daily doses of antipsychotic medications than did dropouts with no CT exposure, but the groups did not otherwise differ. There were no significant differences between participants who completed CT and those who began CT but later dropped out. CT-associated improvement was correlated with worse baseline scores on measures of cognitive performance, symptom severity, functional capacity, and self-rated quality of life, cognitive problems, and strategy use. These results suggest that those with lower baseline functioning may have more room to improve following CT. The pattern of correlations in this sample indicated that many types of individuals can improve with CT treatment, including older patients.

Cognitive computer training in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) versus no intervention: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

Bikic A, Leckman JF, Lindschou J +2 more · Trials · 2015 · 29 citations

Memory enhancement training for older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A preliminary study

Stephen R. Rapp, Gretchen A. Brenes, A. P. Marsh · Aging & Mental Health · 2002 · 234 citations

'Mild cognitive impairment' (MCI) in older adults refers to a significant decline in memory function but not other cognitive functions. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for MCI are needed. The present randomized clinical trial tests the efficacy of a cognitive and behavioral treatment to improve memory performance and participants' attitudes about their memory. A multi-faceted intervention that included education about memory loss, relaxation training, memory skills training, and cognitive restructuring for memory-related beliefs was compared to a no-treatment control condition. Outcomes included memory performance and appraisals of memory function and control. Results indicate that the treated group had significantly better memory appraisals than controls at the end of treatment and at a six-month follow-up. There were no differences between groups on memory performance at post-test but at follow-up the trained individuals showed a trend toward better word list recall than controls. Findings suggest that individuals with MCI can benefit from multi-component memory enhancement training. Further development of such training programs and tests of their efficacy alone and in combination with medications are needed.

Thinking While Moving or Moving While Thinking – Concepts of Motor-Cognitive Training for Cognitive Performance Enhancement

Fabian Herold, Dennis Hamacher, Lutz Schega +1 more · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · 2018 · 267 citations

The demographic change in industrial countries, with increasingly sedentary lifestyles, has a negative impact on mental health. Normal and pathological aging leads to cognitive deficits. This development poses major challenges on national health systems. Therefore, it is necessary to develop efficient cognitive enhancement strategies. The combination of regular physical exercise with cognitive stimulation seems especially suited to increase an individual’s cognitive reserve, i.e. his/her resistance to degenerative processes of the brain. Here, we outline insufficiently explored fields in exercise-cognition research and provide a classification approach for different motor-cognitive training regimens. We suggest to classify motor-cognitive training in two categories, (I) sequential motor-cognitive training (the motor and cognitive training are conducted time separated) and (II) simultaneous motor-cognitive training (motor and cognitive training are conducted sequentially). In addition, simultaneous motor-cognitive training may be distinguished based on the specific characteristics of the cognitive task. If successfully solving the cognitive task is not a relevant prerequisite to complete the motor-cognitive task, we would consider this type of training as (IIa) motor-cognitive training with additional cognitive task. In contrast, in ecologically more valid (IIb) motor cognitive training with incorporated cognitive task, the cognitive tasks is a relevant prerequisite to solve the motor-cognitive task. We speculate that incorporating cognitive tasks into motor tasks, rather than separate training of mental and physical functions, is the most promising approach to efficiently enhance cognitive reserve. Further research investigating the influence of motor(-cognitive) exercises with different quantitative and qualitative characteristics on cognitive performance is urgently needed.

Impact of Cognitive Training on Balance and Gait in Older Adults

Renae L. Smith-Ray, Susan L. Hughes, Thomas Prohaska +3 more · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · 2013 · 182 citations

OBJECTIVES: Cognitive processing plays an important role in balance and gait and is a contributing factor to falls in older adults. This relationship may be explained by the fact that higher order cognitive functions such as executive functions are called upon while walking. The purpose of this study was to examine whether a cognitive training intervention leads to significant improvements on measures of balance and gait. METHOD: This randomized trial tested whether cognitive training over 10 weeks improves balance and gait in older adults. Participants were randomly assigned to a computer-based cognitive training intervention or measurement-only control. Outcomes included Timed Up and Go (TUG), gait speed, and gait speed with a cognitive distraction. Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance models with change scores. RESULTS: Participants' (N = 51) average age was 82.7 for those randomized to intervention and 81.1 for those randomized to control. After 10 weeks, intervention group participants performed significantly better than controls on the TUG. When the cohort was limited to those categorized as slow walkers (baseline 10-m walk ≥ 9 s), intervention participants performed significantly better than controls on TUG and distracted walking. DISCUSSION: Cognitive training slows degradation of balance and improves gait while distracted, rendering it a promising approach to falls prevention.

Cognitive Control in Auditory Working Memory Is Enhanced in Musicians

Karen Johanne Pallesen, Elvira Brattico, Christopher J. Bailey +4 more · PLoS ONE · 2010 · 242 citations

Musical competence may confer cognitive advantages that extend beyond processing of familiar musical sounds. Behavioural evidence indicates a general enhancement of both working memory and attention in musicians. It is possible that musicians, due to their training, are better able to maintain focus on task-relevant stimuli, a skill which is crucial to working memory. We measured the blood oxygenation-level dependent (BOLD) activation signal in musicians and non-musicians during working memory of musical sounds to determine the relation among performance, musical competence and generally enhanced cognition. All participants easily distinguished the stimuli. We tested the hypothesis that musicians nonetheless would perform better, and that differential brain activity would mainly be present in cortical areas involved in cognitive control such as the lateral prefrontal cortex. The musicians performed better as reflected in reaction times and error rates. Musicians also had larger BOLD responses than non-musicians in neuronal networks that sustain attention and cognitive control, including regions of the lateral prefrontal cortex, lateral parietal cortex, insula, and putamen in the right hemisphere, and bilaterally in the posterior dorsal prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus. The relationship between the task performance and the magnitude of the BOLD response was more positive in musicians than in non-musicians, particularly during the most difficult working memory task. The results confirm previous findings that neural activity increases during enhanced working memory performance. The results also suggest that superior working memory task performance in musicians rely on an enhanced ability to exert sustained cognitive control. This cognitive benefit in musicians may be a consequence of focused musical training.

Aerobic Exercise Intervention, Cognitive Performance, and Brain Structure: Results from the Physical Influences on Brain in Aging (PHIBRA) Study

Lars Jonasson, Lars Nyberg, Arthur F. Kramer +3 more · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · 2017 · 222 citations

Studies have shown that aerobic exercise has the potential to improve cognition and reduce brain atrophy in older adults. However, the literature is equivocal with regards to the specificity or generality of these effects. To this end, we report results on cognitive function and brain structure from a 6-month training intervention with 60 sedentary adults (64-78yrs) randomized to either aerobic training or stretching and toning control training. Cognitive functions were assessed with a neuropsychological test battery in which cognitive constructs were measured using several different tests. Freesurfer was used to estimate cortical thickness in frontal regions and hippocampus volume. Results showed that aerobic exercisers, compared to controls, exhibited a broad, rather than specific, improvement in cognition as indexed by a higher ‘Cognitive score’, a composite including episodic memory, processing speed, updating, and executive function tasks (p = 0.01). There were no group differences in cortical thickness, but additional analyses revealed that aerobic fitness at baseline was specifically related to larger thickness in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), and hippocampus volume was positively associated with increased aerobic fitness over time. Moreover, ‘Cognitive score’ was related to dlPFC thickness at baseline, but changes in ‘Cognitive score’ and dlPFC thickness were associated over time in the aerobic group only. However, aerobic fitness did not predict dlPFC change, despite the improvement in ‘Cognitive score’ in aerobic exercisers. Our interpretation of these observations is that potential exercise-induced changes in thickness are slow, and may be undetectable within 6-months, in contrast to change in hippocampus volume which in fact was predicted by the change in aerobic fitness. To conclude, our results add to a growing literature suggesting that aerobic exercise has a broad influence on cognitive functioning, which may aid in explaining why studies focusing on a narrower range of functions have sometimes reported mixed results.

Cognitive Training for Improving Executive Function in Chemotherapy-Treated Breast Cancer Survivors

Shelli R. Kesler, S. M. Hadi Hosseini, Charles E. Heckler +4 more · Clinical Breast Cancer · 2013 · 297 citations

Effects of the abacus-based mental calculation training application "SoroTouch" on cognitive functions: A randomized controlled trial.

Takaoka T, Hashimoto K, Aoki S +2 more · PLoS One · 2024 · 6 citations

A 12-week daily training program using a smartphone app called SoroTouch (which teaches abacus-based mental calculation) produced moderate improvements in working memory and processing speed in healthy adults, but showed no significant effect on general intelligence or executive function — suggesting that practicing mental arithmetic can sharpen specific cognitive skills but does not make you "smarter" overall.

Computer-assisted cognitive rehabilitation of attention deficits for multiple sclerosis: a randomized trial with fMRI correlates.

Cerasa A, Gioia MC, Valentino P +9 more · Neurorehabil Neural Repair · 2013 · 154 citations

Improving Executive Functioning in Children with ADHD: Training Multiple Executive Functions within the Context of a Computer Game. A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo Controlled Trial

Sebastiaan Dovis, Saskia Van der Oord, Reínout W. Wiers +1 more · PLoS ONE · 2015 · 267 citations

INTRODUCTION: Executive functions (EFs) training interventions aimed at ADHD-symptom reduction have yielded mixed results. Generally, these interventions focus on training a single cognitive domain (e.g., working memory [WM], inhibition, or cognitive-flexibility). However, evidence suggests that most children with ADHD show deficits on multiple EFs, and that these EFs are largely related to different brain regions. Therefore, training multiple EFs might be a potentially more effective strategy to reduce EF-related ADHD symptoms. METHODS: Eighty-nine children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD (aged 8-12) were randomized to either a full-active-condition where visuospatial WM, inhibition and cognitive-flexibility were trained, a partially-active-condition where inhibition and cognitive-flexibility were trained and the WM-training task was presented in placebo-mode, or to a full placebo-condition. Short-term and long-term (3-months) effects of this gamified, 25-session, home-based computer-training were evaluated on multiple outcome domains. RESULTS: During training compliance was high (only 3% failed to meet compliance criteria). After training, only children in the full-active condition showed improvement on measures of visuospatial short-term-memory (STM) and WM. Inhibitory performance and interference control only improved in the full-active- and the partially-active condition. No Treatment-condition x Time interactions were found for cognitive-flexibility, verbal WM, complex-reasoning, nor for any parent-, teacher-, or child-rated ADHD behaviors, EF-behaviors, motivational behaviors, or general problem behaviors. Nonetheless, almost all measures showed main Time-effects, including the teacher-ratings. CONCLUSIONS: Improvements on inhibition and visuospatial STM and WM were specifically related to the type of treatment received. However, transfer to untrained EFs and behaviors was mostly nonspecific (i.e., only interference control improved exclusively in the two EF training conditions). As such, in this multiple EF-training, mainly nonspecific treatment factors - as opposed to the specific effects of training EFs-seem related to far transfer effects found on EF and behavior. TRIAL REGISTRATION: trialregister.nl NTR2728. Registry name: improving executive functioning in children with ADHD: training executive functions within the context of a computer game; registry number: NTR2728.

Does multicomponent physical exercise with simultaneous cognitive training boost cognitive performance in older adults? A 6-month rando&amp;shy;mized controlled trial with a 1-year follow-up

Eling D. de Bruin, Patrick Eggenberger, Vera Schumacher +2 more · Clinical Interventions in Aging · 2015 · 184 citations

BACKGROUND: Cognitive impairment is a health problem that concerns almost every second elderly person. Physical and cognitive training have differential positive effects on cognition, but have been rarely applied in combination. This study evaluates synergistic effects of multicomponent physical exercise complemented with novel simultaneous cognitive training on cognition in older adults. We hypothesized that simultaneous cognitive-physical components would add training specific cognitive benefits compared to exclusively physical training. METHODS: Seniors, older than 70 years, without cognitive impairment, were randomly assigned to either: 1) virtual reality video game dancing (DANCE), 2) treadmill walking with simultaneous verbal memory training (MEMORY), or 3) treadmill walking (PHYS). Each program was complemented with strength and balance exercises. Two 1-hour training sessions per week over 6 months were applied. Cognitive performance was assessed at baseline, after 3 and 6 months, and at 1-year follow-up. Multiple regression analyses with planned comparisons were calculated. RESULTS: Eighty-nine participants were randomized to the three groups initially, 71 completed the training, while 47 were available at 1-year follow-up. Advantages of the simultaneous cognitive-physical programs were found in two dimensions of executive function. "Shifting attention" showed a time×intervention interaction in favor of DANCE/MEMORY versus PHYS (F[2, 68] =1.95, trend P=0.075, r=0.17); and "working memory" showed a time×intervention interaction in favor of DANCE versus MEMORY (F[1, 136] =2.71, trend P=0.051, R (2)=0.006). Performance improvements in executive functions, long-term visual memory (episodic memory), and processing speed were maintained at follow-up in all groups. CONCLUSION: Particular executive functions benefit from simultaneous cognitive-physical training compared to exclusively physical multicomponent training. Cognitive-physical training programs may counteract widespread cognitive impairments in the elderly.

Comparative Effectiveness of Multicomponent Exercise Interventions on Cognitive Function in People With Cognitive Impairmsent: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis.

Deng Z, Zeng D, Zhang Y +2 more · J Clin Nurs · 2026

Enhancing Cognitive Function Using Perceptual-Cognitive Training.

Parsons B, Magill T, Boucher A +6 more · Clin EEG Neurosci · 2016 · 109 citations

Classroom-Based Physical Activity Breaks and Children's Attention: Cognitive Engagement Works!

Mirko Schmidt, Valentin Benzing, Mario Kamer · Frontiers in Psychology · 2016 · 182 citations

Classroom-based physical activity breaks are postulated to positively impact children’s attention during their school day. However, empirical evidence for this claim is scarce and the role of cognitive engagement in enhancing children’s attentional performance is unexplored in studies on physical activity breaks. The aim of the present study was therefore to disentangle the separate and/or combined effects of physical exertion and cognitive engagement induced by physical activity breaks on primary school children’s attention. In addition, the role of children’s affective reactions to acute interventions at school was investigated. Using a 2 × 2 between-subjects experimental design, 92 children between the ages of 11 and 12 years (M = 11.77, SD = 0.41) were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: (1) combo group (physical activity with high cognitive demands), (2) cognition group (sedentary with high cognitive demands), (3) physical group (physical activity with low cognitive demands), and (4) control group (sedentary with low cognitive demands). Attention and affect were measured before and immediately after a 10-minute intervention. ANCOVAs revealed that whereas physical exertion had no effect on any measure of children’s attentional performance, cognitive engagement was the crucial factor leading to increased focused attention and enhanced processing speed. Mediational analyses showed that changes in positive affect during the interventions mediated the effect between cognitive engagement and focused attention as well as between cognitive engagement and processing speed. These surprising results are discussed in the light of theories predicting both facilitating and deteriorative effects of positive affect on cognitive performance.

Individualized Piano Instruction enhances executive functioning and working memory in older adults

Jennifer A. Bugos, William M. Perlstein, Christina S. McCrae +2 more · Aging & Mental Health · 2007 · 448 citations

This study evaluates transfer from domain-specific, sensorimotor training to cognitive abilities associated with executive function. We examined Individualized Piano Instruction (IPI) as a potential cognitive intervention to mitigate normal age-related cognitive decline in older adults. Thirty-one musically naïve community-dwelling older adults (ages 60-85) were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 16) or control group (n = 15). Neuropsychological assessments were administered at three time points: pre-training, following six months of intervention, and following a three-month delay. The experimental group significantly improved performance on the Trail Making Test and Digit Symbol measures as compared to healthy controls. Results of this study suggest that IPI may serve as an effective cognitive intervention for age-related cognitive decline.

Effectiveness of exercise for improving cognition, memory and executive function: a systematic umbrella review and meta-meta-analysis.

Singh B, Bennett H, Miatke A +13 more · Br J Sports Med · 2025

Cogmed cognitive training for working memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Paradela RS, de Oliveira Dias P, Detogni A +6 more · Neuroscience · 2025

The effectiveness of digital technology interventions for cognitive function in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

Chen C, Huang N, Hu B +3 more · Geroscience · 2025

Effects of combined physical and cognitive training on fitness and neuropsychological outcomes in healthy older adults

Laurence Desjardins-Crépeau, Nicolas Berryman, Sarah Fraser +5 more · Clinical Interventions in Aging · 2016 · 122 citations

PURPOSE: Physical exercise and cognitive training have been shown to enhance cognition among older adults. However, few studies have looked at the potential synergetic effects of combining physical and cognitive training in a single study. Prior trials on combined training have led to interesting yet equivocal results. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of combined physical and cognitive interventions on physical fitness and neuropsychological performance in healthy older adults. METHODS: Seventy-six participants were randomly assigned to one of four training combinations using a 2×2 factorial design. The physical intervention was a mixed aerobic and resistance training program, and the cognitive intervention was a dual-task (DT) training program. Stretching and toning exercises and computer lessons were used as active control conditions. Physical and cognitive measures were collected pre- and postintervention. RESULTS: All groups showed equivalent improvements in measures of functional mobility. The aerobic-strength condition led to larger effect size in lower body strength, independently of cognitive training. All groups showed improved speed of processing and inhibition abilities, but only participants who took part in the DT training, independently of physical training, showed increased task-switching abilities. The level of functional mobility after intervention was significantly associated with task-switching abilities. CONCLUSION: Combined training did not yield synergetic effects. However, DT training did lead to transfer effects on executive performance in neuropsychological tests. Both aerobic-resistance training and stretching-toning exercises can improve functional mobility in older adults.

Cognitive Rehabilitation in Patients With Gliomas: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

Karin Gehring, Margriet M. Sitskoorn, Chad M. Gundy +13 more · Journal of Clinical Oncology · 2009 · 343 citations

PURPOSE: Patients with gliomas often experience cognitive deficits, including problems with attention and memory. This randomized, controlled trial evaluated the effects of a multifaceted cognitive rehabilitation program (CRP) on cognitive functioning and selected quality-of-life domains in patients with gliomas. PATIENTS AND METHODS: One hundred forty adult patients with low-grade and anaplastic gliomas, favorable prognostic factors, and both subjective cognitive symptoms and objective cognitive deficits were recruited from 11 hospitals in the Netherlands. Patients were randomly assigned to an intervention group or to a waiting-list control group. The intervention incorporated both computer-based attention retraining and compensatory skills training of attention, memory, and executive functioning. Participants completed a battery of neuropsychological (NP) tests and self-report questionnaires on cognitive functioning, fatigue, mental health-related quality of life, and community integration at baseline, after completion of the CRP, and at 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: At the immediate post-treatment evaluation, statistically significant intervention effects were observed for measures of subjective cognitive functioning and its perceived burden but not for the objective NP outcomes or for any of the other self-report measures. At the 6-month follow-up, the CRP group performed significantly better than the control group on NP tests of attention and verbal memory and reported less mental fatigue. Group differences in other subjective outcomes were not significant at 6 months. CONCLUSION: The CRP has a salutary effect on short-term cognitive complaints and on longer-term cognitive performance and mental fatigue. Additional research is needed to identify which elements of the intervention are most effective.

Effects of chronic physical exercise on executive functions and episodic memory in clinical and healthy older adult populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol.

Ballesteros S, Audifren M, Badache A +12 more · Syst Rev · 2024

Cognitive training with casual video games: points to consider

Pauline L. Baniqued, Michael Kranz, Michelle W. Voss +4 more · Frontiers in Psychology · 2014 · 135 citations

Brain training programs have proliferated in recent years, with claims that video games or computer-based tasks can broadly enhance cognitive function. However, benefits are commonly seen only in trained tasks. Assessing generalized improvement and practicality of laboratory exercises complicates interpretation and application of findings. In this study, we addressed these issues by using active control groups, training tasks that more closely resemble real-world demands and multiple tests to determine transfer of training. We examined whether casual video games can broadly improve cognition, and selected training games from a study of the relationship between game performance and cognitive abilities. A total of 209 young adults were randomized into a working memory-reasoning group, an adaptive working memory-reasoning group, an active control game group, and a no-contact control group. Before and after 15 h of training, participants completed tests of reasoning, working memory, attention, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and self-report measures of executive function, game experience, perceived improvement, knowledge of brain training research, and game play outside the laboratory. Participants improved on the training games, but transfer to untrained tasks was limited. No group showed gains in reasoning, working memory, episodic memory, or perceptual speed, but the working memory-reasoning groups improved in divided attention, with better performance in an attention-demanding game, a decreased attentional blink and smaller trail-making costs. Perceived improvements did not differ across training groups and those with low reasoning ability at baseline showed larger gains. Although there are important caveats, our study sheds light on the mixed effects in the training and transfer literature and offers a novel and potentially practical training approach. Still, more research is needed to determine the real-world benefits of computer programs such as casual games.